The electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions constitutes a basic sort of chemical bond. This interplay arises from a course of involving the switch of valence electrons between atoms. One atom donates electrons, leading to a positively charged ion, whereas one other atom accepts these electrons, turning into a negatively charged ion. A typical instance is the formation of sodium chloride (NaCl), the place sodium (Na) loses an electron to turn out to be a constructive ion and chlorine (Cl) features that electron to turn out to be a damaging ion.
This interplay is essential for the formation of an enormous array of chemical compounds and supplies. The ensuing compounds exhibit attribute properties reminiscent of excessive melting factors, brittleness, and the flexibility to conduct electrical energy when dissolved in polar solvents. Traditionally, understanding the character of this attraction has been important for developments in chemistry, supplies science, and quite a few industrial processes. It permits the manipulation of matter on the atomic stage to create substances with desired properties.
The next dialogue will discover the components influencing the power of any such bond, the lattice buildings shaped by the ensuing compounds, and the implications for numerous purposes in fields starting from medication to electronics.
1. Electrostatic Attraction
The formation of an ionic bond is, at its coronary heart, a narrative of attraction. It begins with atoms, every striving for stability. One atom, typically a metallic, possesses a weaker grasp on its valence electrons, whereas one other, sometimes a nonmetal, has a powerful affinity for them. This distinction in electronegativity units the stage for electron switch. Because the metallic relinquishes its electron(s), it transforms right into a positively charged ion, a cation. Conversely, the nonmetal, having gained electron(s), turns into a negatively charged ion, an anion. This genesis of opposing fees is the place electrostatic attraction takes middle stage, turning into the driving pressure that binds these ions collectively, forging the ionic bond.
The magnitude of this electrostatic attraction, ruled by Coulomb’s Regulation, is straight proportional to the costs of the ions and inversely proportional to the sq. of the gap between them. This relationship dictates the power of the ionic bond. For instance, magnesium oxide (MgO), with its +2 and -2 ions, displays a considerably stronger attraction and consequently the next melting level than sodium chloride (NaCl), which has +1 and -1 ions. This precept extends past easy binary compounds. The association of ions inside the crystal lattice additional enhances the steadiness of the ionic compound, maximizing enticing forces whereas minimizing repulsive forces. The meticulous packing of ions inside these lattices is a testomony to the highly effective affect of electrostatic attraction.
Understanding the position of electrostatic attraction is vital in predicting and manipulating the properties of ionic compounds. From designing new battery supplies with enhanced ionic conductivity to creating prescription drugs that concentrate on particular ions in organic techniques, the ideas of electrostatic attraction present a framework for innovation. The interaction between cation and anion, ruled by electrostatic forces, is just not merely a theoretical idea; it’s the basis upon which an enormous array of supplies and applied sciences are constructed. Its correct utilization ensures the creation of steady, useful supplies tailor-made for particular wants.
2. Electron Switch
On the coronary heart of the ionic bond lies a basic act: electron switch. It’s a shift {of electrical} cost, a quantum handoff that transforms impartial atoms into the charged entities important for forming ionic compounds. This switch is just not merely a element however the very genesis of the electrostatic forces that maintain these compounds collectively.
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Electronegativity Distinction
The driving pressure behind electron switch is the distinction in electronegativity between atoms. Electronegativity, a measure of an atom’s potential to draw electrons, dictates the route of the switch. Think about sodium chloride: chlorine, with a excessive electronegativity, wrests an electron from sodium, which has a low electronegativity. This disparity is essential. With out a adequate distinction, the switch wouldn’t happen, and the ensuing electrostatic attraction could be negligible. The magnitude of the electronegativity distinction serves as a predictor of ionic character; the bigger the distinction, the extra ionic the bond.
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Ion Formation
Electron switch begets ion formation. The atom that loses electrons turns into a positively charged cation; the atom that features electrons turns into a negatively charged anion. These ions, now possessing reverse fees, are now not electrically impartial. Their newfound fees will not be mere symbols however characterize a basic shift of their electrical properties. This transformation is the precursor to the electrostatic attraction that characterizes the ionic bond. Calcium fluoride (CaF2), for instance, showcases calcium dropping two electrons to turn out to be Ca2+ and every fluorine atom gaining one electron to turn out to be F–, illustrating the stoichiometry of ion formation.
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Reaching Noble Gasoline Configuration
Electron switch typically ends in ions reaching a noble gasoline electron configuration. Atoms attempt for stability, and possessing a full valence shell, just like the noble gases, is energetically favorable. By dropping or gaining electrons, atoms can attain this steady configuration. Sodium, by dropping one electron, achieves the identical electron configuration as neon, a noble gasoline. Equally, chlorine, by gaining one electron, achieves the identical configuration as argon. This drive for stability fuels the electron switch course of and underpins the formation of many ionic compounds. The pursuit of noble gasoline configuration explains the frequent ion fees noticed in ionic compounds.
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Vitality Issues
The electron switch course of is ruled by vitality concerns. Ionization vitality, the vitality required to take away an electron from an atom, and electron affinity, the vitality launched when an atom features an electron, play essential roles. The general vitality change related to electron switch dictates whether or not the method is energetically favorable. Whereas the ionization vitality of sodium is constructive, the electron affinity of chlorine is damaging, and the lattice vitality launched upon forming the crystal lattice is considerably damaging. This total damaging vitality change makes the formation of sodium chloride energetically favorable, driving the electron switch and ionic bond formation. Lattice vitality is a key issue within the stability of ionic compounds.
These aspects, from electronegativity variations to vitality concerns, spotlight the intricate relationship between electron switch and the ionic bond. It’s via this trade of electrons that impartial atoms remodel into charged ions, setting the stage for the electrostatic attraction that defines and stabilizes the ionic compound. The cautious steadiness of vitality and the drive for stability dictate the success of this transformation, leading to a various array of ionic compounds with distinctive and invaluable properties.
3. Lattice Formation
After the trade of electrons, when cations and anions have been solid within the crucible of electronegativity, a brand new chapter begins: the formation of a crystalline lattice. This isn’t a random agglomeration however a meticulously ordered association, dictated by the elemental legal guidelines of electrostatics and the inherent drive in the direction of minimal vitality. The lattice is the architectural embodiment of the ionic bond, a testomony to the ability of attraction within the atomic world. The emergent construction dictates a lot of the compounds macroscopic properties.
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Electrostatic Optimization
The lattice is just not merely a group of ions; it’s a fastidiously crafted association that maximizes enticing forces and minimizes repulsive forces. Cations place themselves close to anions, and vice versa, making a community of alternating fees that extends all through the crystal. The spatial association ensures that every ion is surrounded by ions of reverse cost, amplifying the general electrostatic attraction and stabilizing the construction. Think about sodium chloride (NaCl): every sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions, and every chloride ion is surrounded by six sodium ions, forming a three-dimensional cubic lattice. This optimization is essential for the steadiness of the ionic compound; any deviation from this splendid association would improve the vitality of the system and render it much less steady.
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Lattice Vitality
The formation of the lattice releases a major quantity of vitality, often called lattice vitality. This vitality represents the distinction in potential vitality between the separated ions and the ions organized within the crystal lattice. Lattice vitality is a direct measure of the power of the ionic bond; the upper the lattice vitality, the stronger the bond and the extra steady the compound. Elements reminiscent of ionic cost and ionic radius affect lattice vitality. Ions with increased fees and smaller radii exhibit stronger electrostatic points of interest and, consequently, increased lattice energies. Magnesium oxide (MgO), with its +2 and -2 ions, has a considerably increased lattice vitality than sodium chloride (NaCl), with its +1 and -1 ions. This distinction in lattice vitality interprets to increased melting factors and higher stability for MgO.
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Crystal Construction Willpower
The association of ions within the lattice dictates the crystal construction of the ionic compound. Completely different ionic compounds exhibit totally different crystal buildings, relying on the relative sizes and fees of the ions. Frequent crystal buildings embrace cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, and hexagonal. X-ray diffraction methods are used to find out the exact association of ions inside the crystal lattice. By analyzing the diffraction patterns, scientists can deduce the crystal construction and achieve insights into the character of the ionic bonding. The crystal construction, in flip, influences the macroscopic properties of the compound, reminiscent of its hardness, cleavage, and optical properties. The information of crystal construction is crucial for understanding and manipulating the properties of ionic supplies.
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Impression on Bodily Properties
The crystalline lattice straight influences quite a few bodily properties. Excessive melting factors and boiling factors are attribute of ionic compounds, a consequence of the sturdy electrostatic forces that have to be overcome to separate the ions. Hardness and brittleness are additionally typical, reflecting the rigidity of the lattice and the resistance to deformation. Solubility in polar solvents is one other notable property; polar solvents, reminiscent of water, can successfully solvate the ions, disrupting the lattice construction and dissolving the compound. Moreover, ionic compounds are typically good conductors of electrical energy when molten or dissolved in water, because the ions are free to maneuver and carry cost. These properties will not be merely incidental; they’re a direct manifestation of the lattice construction and the underlying ionic bonding. Thus, the formation of the lattice isn’t just an finish in itself however the important thing to unlocking the distinctive traits of ionic supplies.
In abstract, the formation of the crystalline lattice is the culminating act within the drama of the ionic bond. It’s the architectural manifestation of the electrostatic forces that come up from electron switch, the optimization of interactions, and the important thing to understanding and manipulating the bodily properties of ionic compounds. The story of cations and anions sharing electrons would not conclude with their particular person formation; it crescendos within the intricate association of the lattice, a construction that dictates the conduct of the ensuing materials.
4. Crystal Construction
The story of crystal construction is interwoven with the very material of ionic bonding. It begins not with electron switch itself, however with the aftermath the structure that emerges from the electrostatic embrace of oppositely charged ions. The precise association, the sample etched within the atomic world, dictates not solely the compounds aesthetic kind, but in addition its macroscopic properties and potential purposes. It’s the blueprint drawn by the steadiness of fees and spatial constraints.
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Lattice Geometry and Ion Packing
Think about an enormous corridor the place constructing blocks, some positively charged and a few negatively, are compelled to rearrange themselves. The crystal construction dictates how these blocks, the ions, pack collectively. Face-centered cubic, body-centered cubic, hexagonal close-packed these will not be mere names however descriptions of spatial relationships, the place every ion finds its place, surrounded by others of opposing cost. Sodium chloride adopts a face-centered cubic construction, every sodium ion nestled between six chloride ions, a configuration that maximizes attraction and minimizes repulsion. The geometry of this packing has penalties, influencing the cleavage planes of the crystal or its potential to scatter gentle.
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Coordination Quantity and Stability
The coordination quantity speaks to the quick setting of an ion, the variety of oppositely charged ions that straight encompass it. In cesium chloride, every cesium ion is encircled by eight chloride ions, the next coordination quantity than in sodium chloride. This quantity is just not arbitrary. It displays the relative sizes of the ions and the power of the electrostatic interactions. The next coordination quantity typically implies a higher diploma of stability, as every ion is extra tightly certain to its neighbors. It’s a refined dance, the place measurement, cost, and spatial association mix to find out the optimum coordination setting.
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Defects and Imperfections
No crystal is ideal. Vacancies, the place ions are lacking; interstitials, the place ions squeeze into sudden areas; impurities, the place international ions infiltrate the lattice these defects are the cracks within the in any other case pristine construction. They don’t seem to be all the time detrimental. Certainly, they will dramatically alter the properties of the fabric. Doping semiconductors, introducing impurities right into a crystal lattice, is a primary instance. It may seriously change the conductivity of the fabric, enabling the creation of transistors and different digital units. Thus, imperfections will be harnessed to create supplies with tailor-made functionalities.
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Polymorphism and Part Transitions
Some ionic compounds are chameleons, able to adopting totally different crystal buildings beneath various situations of temperature and stress. This phenomenon, often called polymorphism, permits a single compound to exhibit a variety of properties, relying on its crystalline kind. Think about titanium dioxide (TiO2), which exists in a number of kinds, together with rutile and anatase. Every polymorph possesses distinct optical and catalytic properties. Part transitions, the shifts between these crystalline kinds, will be triggered by exterior stimuli, opening avenues for the creation of good supplies that reply to their setting. These transitions are pushed by the pursuit of minimal vitality, the crystal construction adjusting itself to the prevailing situations.
The connection between crystal construction and the underlying ionic bond is thus profound. The sharing of electrons, the start of ions, units the stage, however the ensuing association the intricate, typically lovely, crystal construction determines the destiny of the compound. It governs its bodily properties, its potential purposes, and its very identification. To know an ionic materials is to grasp its crystal construction, the architectural embodiment of electrostatic attraction.
5. Compound Properties
The narrative of compound properties begins with electron switch between atoms, the genesis of cations and anions. This basic act dictates the ensuing compound’s character. Excessive melting factors, electrical conductivity in answer, and a propensity for brittle fracture will not be arbitrary traits; they’re the direct penalties of the ionic bond solid on this course of. Every property tells part of the story of electrostatic attraction and lattice construction. For instance, the elevated melting factors of ionic solids stem from the numerous vitality wanted to disrupt the sturdy community of ionic interactions. Sodium chloride, peculiar desk salt, melts at 801C, a testomony to the tenacious grip of the electrostatic forces inside its crystalline lattice. This excessive melting level permits its utilization in high-temperature industrial processes.
Past melting factors, the solubility of ionic compounds in polar solvents is one other vital property linked to the ionic bond. Water molecules, with their partial constructive and damaging fees, can successfully solvate the ions, disrupting the lattice construction and permitting the compound to dissolve. This property is key to organic techniques, the place ions play important roles in nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and sustaining osmotic steadiness. The convenience with which sodium and potassium ions dissolve in water permits for the creation of electrolyte options very important for mobile perform. Furthermore, {the electrical} conductivity exhibited by molten or dissolved ionic compounds arises from the mobility of charged ions. This conductivity is exploited in electrolytic processes, such because the extraction of aluminum from its ore and the electroplating of metals. The flexibility to regulate and manipulate the stream of ions has revolutionized numerous industries.
In essence, the properties displayed by ionic compounds will not be merely incidental traits; they’re the fingerprints of the ionic bond, a direct reflection of the electron switch and the next electrostatic interactions that outline these supplies. Understanding this connection permits for the design and synthesis of latest ionic compounds with tailor-made properties, enabling developments in fields starting from vitality storage to medication. The journey from electron switch to macroscopic properties is a steady narrative, every chapter revealing the profound affect of the ionic bond. The exploration of those properties permits to take advantage of the complete potential of supplies.
6. Vitality Minimization
The story of ionic bond formation is, basically, a story of energetic thrift. Atoms, pushed by an inherent crucial in the direction of stability, search the bottom doable vitality state. When contemplating cations and anions arising from electron switch, this quest for vitality minimization is just not merely a backdrop; it’s the central driving pressure. Your entire course of, from the preliminary ionization to the ultimate association inside the crystal lattice, will be seen as a step-by-step descent down an vitality panorama. Initially, impartial atoms possess a sure vitality stage. Eradicating an electron from one atom (forming a cation) and including it to a different (forming an anion) requires vitality enter, sometimes called ionization vitality. Individually, anions and cations are excessive vitality, unstable. That is akin to pushing a boulder uphill. Nevertheless, the next electrostatic attraction between the oppositely charged ions releases vitality. Like rolling the boulder down the hill, the system strikes to a decrease vitality state. This energetic reward, the lattice vitality, have to be adequate to beat the preliminary ionization prices for the ionic bond to kind spontaneously. Magnesium oxide affords a compelling instance. The double constructive cost of magnesium and the double damaging cost of oxygen result in a really excessive lattice vitality, a major drop in total vitality that drives the formation of a steady, strong ionic compound. Subsequently, for these processes to happen, cations and anions share electrons to kind an ionic bond to have adequate low vitality stage than preliminary stage.
The association of ions inside the crystal lattice can be an train in vitality minimization. The ions do not merely clump collectively randomly. As a substitute, they manage themselves in a way that maximizes enticing forces between oppositely charged ions whereas minimizing repulsive forces between ions of the identical cost. Every ion finds itself surrounded by as many counterions as doable, at distances that steadiness attraction and repulsion. Deviations from this optimum association create defects within the crystal construction, and these defects inherently improve the vitality of the system. It is like a exactly constructed tower: any lacking block compromises the whole construction, rising its instability. The truth that many ionic compounds undertake extremely ordered crystal buildings just like the sodium chloride or cesium chloride buildings is a testomony to the highly effective drive in the direction of energetic perfection. These buildings could also be present in huge salt flats or deep inside the Earth’s crust, illustrating their intrinsic stability beneath numerous environmental situations.
In abstract, the sharing of electrons between atoms, resulting in the formation of cations and anions, is inextricably linked to the precept of vitality minimization. The electron switch, the electrostatic attraction, and the association inside the crystal lattice all contribute to lowering the general vitality of the system. The ionic bond is just not a static entity; it’s a dynamic consequence of this energetic crucial. If the formation of the ionic compound didn’t result in a sufficiently decrease vitality state in comparison with the separated atoms, the compound would merely not exist. The challenges contain exactly calculating these vitality variations and predicting the ensuing crystal buildings, a fancy endeavor that depends on refined computational strategies. Nevertheless, this detailed understanding affords huge potential in designing novel supplies with focused properties for purposes starting from superior battery expertise to environment friendly catalysts, the place reaching a steady, low-energy configuration is paramount.
Often Requested Questions About Ionic Bonds
The topic of the electrostatic attraction arising from electron switch typically elicits curiosity and particular questions. Addressing these inquiries gives a deeper understanding of the character and implications of the interplay of cations and anions.
Query 1: Is it correct to explain the sharing of electrons in an ionic bond as “equal”?
The time period “sharing” is deceptive. Ionic bond formation includes a switch of electrons from one atom to a different, not a sharing within the standard sense. Think about a medieval lord bestowing land upon a vassal. The lord now not possesses the land; it belongs to the vassal. Equally, in an ionic bond, the electron transfers from one atom (turning into a cation) to a different (turning into an anion). It is a reward, not a shared useful resource.
Query 2: Are interactions involving cations and anions the one sort of chemical bond?
Actually not. The world of chemical bonds is numerous. Covalent bonds, the place atoms share electrons, and metallic bonds, the place electrons are delocalized inside a metallic lattice, characterize distinct bonding varieties. Think about a development challenge: ionic bonds are like bricks firmly cemented collectively, covalent bonds are like shared scaffolding supporting the construction, and metallic bonds are just like the free-flowing electrical energy powering the instruments.
Query 3: Why do ionic compounds are inclined to have excessive melting factors?
The excessive melting factors of ionic compounds stem from the sturdy electrostatic forces that bind the ions collectively inside the crystal lattice. Visualize a fortress constructed of magnets: vital vitality is required to dismantle it. Equally, substantial vitality (warmth) is required to beat the attraction between cations and anions, permitting them to maneuver freely within the liquid state.
Query 4: Is it doable for an ionic compound to conduct electrical energy in its stable kind?
Typically, stable ionic compounds are poor conductors of electrical energy. The ions are locked in place inside the crystal lattice and can’t transfer freely to hold cost. Nevertheless, when melted or dissolved in a polar solvent, the ions turn out to be cellular and may conduct electrical energy. Image a frozen lake: the water molecules are fastened, unable to stream. As soon as melted, nevertheless, the molecules are free to maneuver and create a present. Equally, molten or dissolved ionic compounds turn out to be conductive.
Query 5: Does the dimensions of the ions affect the power of the ionic bond?
Sure, ionic measurement performs a major position. Smaller ions, with their concentrated cost, create stronger electrostatic points of interest. Conversely, bigger ions, with their extra diffuse cost, exhibit weaker points of interest. Think about two magnets: a small, highly effective magnet will adhere extra strongly than a bigger, weaker one. The identical precept applies to the charged ions.
Query 6: Can molecules, relatively than simply single atoms, take part in ionic bonding?
Certainly, polyatomic ions, that are molecules with an total cost, can take part in ionic bond formation. Ammonium nitrate (NHNO), a standard fertilizer, consists of the polyatomic ammonium cation (NH) and the polyatomic nitrate anion (NO). These polyatomic ions behave very similar to single-atom ions, forming an ionic lattice held collectively by electrostatic forces.
In abstract, whereas the method seems simple, its nuances are vital for a complete appreciation. Understanding the underlying ideas governing bond formation paves the best way for the progressive design and software of a terrific number of supplies.
The dialogue now turns to the sensible purposes and real-world implications of those bonds.
Mastering the Ionic Bond
The story of cations and anions sharing electrons to kind an ionic bond is not merely a chapter in a textbook; it is a key to unlocking deeper insights into the world of chemistry. Success in navigating this idea requires cautious consideration to basic ideas. Mastery is just not a dash, however a deliberate, considerate journey.
Tip 1: Conceptualize, Do not Memorize: Resist the urge to easily memorize definitions. Perceive the driving pressure behind electron switch and the ensuing electrostatic attraction. Visualize the method: a sodium atom willingly relinquishing an electron to a chlorine atom, remodeling into oppositely charged ions drawn collectively by an irresistible pressure. This conceptual understanding kinds the bedrock upon which all additional information is constructed.
Tip 2: Embrace Electronegativity: View electronegativity because the compass guiding the route of electron stream. Acknowledge that the higher the distinction in electronegativity between two atoms, the extra possible an ionic bond will kind. Make the most of the periodic desk as a instrument, noting the tendencies in electronegativity. Think about potassium fluoride: potassium, with a low electronegativity, readily donates an electron to fluorine, which boasts the best electronegativity, making a strongly ionic bond.
Tip 3: Chart the Prices: Develop into adept at predicting the costs of frequent ions. Perceive that many parts attempt to attain a noble gasoline electron configuration, gaining or dropping electrons to achieve this steady state. For instance, oxygen, needing two electrons to finish its valence shell, sometimes kinds an ion with a -2 cost. This ability gives a basis for predicting the formulation of ionic compounds, reminiscent of aluminum oxide (AlO), the place aluminum has a +3 cost and oxygen has a -2 cost.
Tip 4: Visualize the Lattice: Abandon the notion of ionic compounds as mere collections of ions. As a substitute, envision the intricate three-dimensional lattices they kind, maximizing attraction and minimizing repulsion. Image the sodium chloride lattice, the place every sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions, and vice versa, making a extremely steady and ordered construction. Understanding the lattice construction clarifies the origin of most of the compounds bodily properties, reminiscent of brittleness and excessive melting level.
Tip 5: Decipher Compound Properties: Acknowledge that the ionic bond is just not an remoted phenomenon; it dictates the macroscopic properties of the compound. Join the sturdy electrostatic forces to the excessive melting factors, perceive how ionic conductivity arises from the mobility of ions in answer, and recognize the hyperlink between lattice construction and crystal form. Potassium iodide, dissolving readily in water to kind a conductive answer, illustrates these ideas.
Tip 6: Relate Lattice Vitality to Stability: Perceive that lattice vitality is a direct measure of the ionic bond’s power and the compound’s stability. Elements reminiscent of ionic cost and ionic radius affect lattice vitality. Examine sodium chloride (NaCl) and magnesium oxide (MgO): the higher cost of Mg and O results in a considerably increased lattice vitality for MgO, reflecting its higher stability.
Tip 7: Observe Method Prediction: Mastering formulation prediction is essential to validating understanding. Given the costs of the ions, predict the right formulation for the ensuing compound. Make sure that the general cost of the compound is impartial. Calcium (Ca) and chlorine (Cl) combining to kind calcium chloride (CaCl) demonstrates this precept of cost balancing. Common apply reinforces this potential, solidifying comprehension.
By embracing these ideas, the seeming complexity of turns into a transparent narrative. Success hinges on constructing a agency basis of understanding, not on fleeting memorization. The information acquired will prolong far past the pages of a chemistry textbook, offering a framework for understanding supplies, reactions, and the very nature of the world round.
The exploration of those bonds gives the groundwork for appreciating advanced chemical reactions.
The Enduring Legacy of Attraction
The previous exploration has traced the intricate dance of ions, the push and pull {of electrical} forces culminating in a defining chemical occasion. Beginning with the elemental shift of electrons, the dialogue journeyed via lattice formations, crystal buildings, compound properties, and the relentless drive towards vitality minimization. It examined the very coronary heart of how nature’s constructing blocks unite, forming the spine of numerous supplies and processes. At every step, the implications of this interplay revealed a profound impression on the bodily and chemical world.
The story of how cations and anions share electrons to kind an ionic bond is just not merely a scientific clarification; it’s an elemental narrative of attraction and stability. It’s the unseen pressure that shapes the world, holding compounds collectively and dictating their behaviors. As such, it’s as much as future generations to understand these ideas, to wield this understanding responsibly, and to design a world constructed on the bedrock of scientific perception. The understanding of this interplay should information innovation within the creation of latest supplies, new applied sciences, and maybe, a extra harmonious coexistence with the planet.
